Those attempting to come to grips with the issue of child abuse in the context of determination of
contact and residency issues are not operating in a social vacuum.
When I began psychiatry 35 year ago, sexual abuse was not on the agenda. Wives did not get battered - and if they did, they deserved it. Physical abuse of children had only just been recognised in 1962 and Kempe was shouted down when he presented his first paper.
My awakening with regard to the sexual abuse of children came as late as 1985 when I was the
family therapy consultant to an inpatient unit. Three girls came in with parasuicidal behaviour. Over
the weeks they were in hospital, each disclosed that her father was having sex with her - the word
abuse in this regard was not regular currency.
family therapy consultant to an inpatient unit. Three girls came in with parasuicidal behaviour. Over
the weeks they were in hospital, each disclosed that her father was having sex with her - the word
abuse in this regard was not regular currency.
I remember shock and disbelief. How could I have missed this for so many years. Why hadn’t
patients told me? Did they give me clues I’d missed? And more importantly why aren’t our
professional organisations shouting from the rooftops that this is happening?
patients told me? Did they give me clues I’d missed? And more importantly why aren’t our
professional organisations shouting from the rooftops that this is happening?
Psychiatry, the Law and Child Abuse
Firstly, psychiatry has never admitted it has missed anything.
Secondly, the profession still minimises sexual abuse and other traumas in its engagement with its
clients’ symptoms. For instance a glance at the annual report of the Beyond Blue project, headed by
Jeff Kennett, government funded to deal with the burgeoning incidence of depression and suicide in
the Australian community, reveals little attention being paid to child abuse, poverty, racism and
unemployment as antecedents to psychiatric problem.
clients’ symptoms. For instance a glance at the annual report of the Beyond Blue project, headed by
Jeff Kennett, government funded to deal with the burgeoning incidence of depression and suicide in
the Australian community, reveals little attention being paid to child abuse, poverty, racism and
unemployment as antecedents to psychiatric problem.
Thirdly as Thomas Szasz once said, if Freud had stuck to his guns, there would have needed to be a
social revolution, not the invention of psychoanalysis. The same can be said of the recent fin de
siecle.
social revolution, not the invention of psychoanalysis. The same can be said of the recent fin de
siecle.
Masson’s Assault on Truth1, first published in 1983 showed the backlash suffered by Freud when he
asserted that a major cause of neurosis was the sexual abuse of children. Freud quite consciously
recanted, shocked at the response of the psychiatric establishment, but clear that he would have to
give up the theory if he was to have a career in the profession. In one of his letters to Fliess at that
time, he wistfully wrote:
asserted that a major cause of neurosis was the sexual abuse of children. Freud quite consciously
recanted, shocked at the response of the psychiatric establishment, but clear that he would have to
give up the theory if he was to have a career in the profession. In one of his letters to Fliess at that
time, he wistfully wrote:
The expectation of eternal fame was so beautiful, as was that of certain wealth, complete independence, travels, and lifting the children above the severe worries which robbed me of my youth. Everything depended upon whether or not hysteria would come out right.2
Masson’s book became a focus for the reaction against the reality and importance of CSA. The vast majority of reviews attacked his person and his motives, but did not address the new information he had managed to get from Anne Freud’s archive in London.
Around this time - the mid to late eighties - many books on abuse were published, Richard Gardner
described the Parent Alienation Syndrome, Ralph Underwager, Hollida Wakefield and the Freyds
formed the False Memory Syndrome Foundation and professionals in the field became divided into
the believers and the sceptics. Many highly regarded professionals supported parents who were
accused of CSA and were very successful in discounting memories which emerged in therapy as
recovered memories and therefore implanted by the therapist.
described the Parent Alienation Syndrome, Ralph Underwager, Hollida Wakefield and the Freyds
formed the False Memory Syndrome Foundation and professionals in the field became divided into
the believers and the sceptics. Many highly regarded professionals supported parents who were
accused of CSA and were very successful in discounting memories which emerged in therapy as
recovered memories and therefore implanted by the therapist.
The expectation of eternal fame was so beautiful, as was that of certain wealth, complete independence, travels, and lifting the children above the severe worries which robbed me of my youth. Everything depended upon whether or not hysteria would come out right.2
Masson’s book became a focus for the reaction against the reality and importance of CSA. The vast majority of reviews attacked his person and his motives, but did not address the new information he had managed to get from Anne Freud’s archive in London.
Around this time - the mid to late eighties - many books on abuse were published, Richard Gardner
described the Parent Alienation Syndrome, Ralph Underwager, Hollida Wakefield and the Freyds
formed the False Memory Syndrome Foundation and professionals in the field became divided into
the believers and the sceptics. Many highly regarded professionals supported parents who were
accused of CSA and were very successful in discounting memories which emerged in therapy as
recovered memories and therefore implanted by the therapist.
described the Parent Alienation Syndrome, Ralph Underwager, Hollida Wakefield and the Freyds
formed the False Memory Syndrome Foundation and professionals in the field became divided into
the believers and the sceptics. Many highly regarded professionals supported parents who were
accused of CSA and were very successful in discounting memories which emerged in therapy as
recovered memories and therefore implanted by the therapist.
1 Masson, Jeffrey. Assault on Truth. 1984. Farrar, Strauss and Giroux
2 Letter of Freud to Fliess, September 21,1897.
Psychiatry, the Law and Child Abuse
Firstly, psychiatry has never admitted it has missed anything.
Secondly, the profession still minimises sexual abuse and other traumas in its engagement with its
clients’ symptoms. For instance a glance at the annual report of the Beyond Blue project, headed by
Jeff Kennett, government funded to deal with the burgeoning incidence of depression and suicide in
the Australian community, reveals little attention being paid to child abuse, poverty, racism and
unemployment as antecedents to psychiatric problem.
clients’ symptoms. For instance a glance at the annual report of the Beyond Blue project, headed by
Jeff Kennett, government funded to deal with the burgeoning incidence of depression and suicide in
the Australian community, reveals little attention being paid to child abuse, poverty, racism and
unemployment as antecedents to psychiatric problem.
Thirdly as Thomas Szasz once said, if Freud had stuck to his guns, there would have needed to be a
social revolution, not the invention of psychoanalysis. The same can be said of the recent fin de
siecle.
social revolution, not the invention of psychoanalysis. The same can be said of the recent fin de
siecle.
Masson’s Assault on Truth1, first published in 1983 showed the backlash suffered by Freud when he
asserted that a major cause of neurosis was the sexual abuse of children. Freud quite consciously
recanted, shocked at the response of the psychiatric establishment, but clear that he would have to
give up the theory if he was to have a career in the profession. In one of his letters to Fliess
asserted that a major cause of neurosis was the sexual abuse of children. Freud quite consciously
recanted, shocked at the response of the psychiatric establishment, but clear that he would have to
give up the theory if he was to have a career in the profession. In one of his letters to Fliess
Psychiatry, the Law and Child Abuse
Firstly, psychiatry has never admitted it has missed anything.
Secondly, the profession still minimises sexual abuse and other traumas in its engagement with its
clients’ symptoms. For instance a glance at the annual report of the Beyond Blue project, headed by
Jeff Kennett, government funded to deal with the burgeoning incidence of depression and suicide in
the Australian community, reveals little attention being paid to child abuse, poverty, racism and
unemployment as antecedents to psychiatric problem.
clients’ symptoms. For instance a glance at the annual report of the Beyond Blue project, headed by
Jeff Kennett, government funded to deal with the burgeoning incidence of depression and suicide in
the Australian community, reveals little attention being paid to child abuse, poverty, racism and
unemployment as antecedents to psychiatric problem.
Thirdly as Thomas Szasz once said, if Freud had stuck to his guns, there would have needed to be a
social revolution, not the invention of psychoanalysis. The same can be said of the recent fin de
siecle.
social revolution, not the invention of psychoanalysis. The same can be said of the recent fin de
siecle.
Masson’s Assault on Truth1, first published in 1983 showed the backlash suffered by Freud when he
asserted that a major cause of neurosis was the sexual abuse of children. Freud quite consciously
recanted, shocked at the response of the psychiatric establishment, but clear that he would have to
give up the theory if he was to have a career in the profession. In one of his letters to Fliess at that
time, he wistfully wrote:
asserted that a major cause of neurosis was the sexual abuse of children. Freud quite consciously
recanted, shocked at the response of the psychiatric establishment, but clear that he would have to
give up the theory if he was to have a career in the profession. In one of his letters to Fliess at that
time, he wistfully wrote:
upon whether out righwould coor not hysteria me t.2
The expectation of eternal fame was so beautiful, as was that of certain wealth, complete independence, travels, and lifting the children above the severe worries which robbed me of my youth. Everything depended
Masson’s book became a focus for the reaction against the reality and importance of CSA. The vast majority of reviews attacked his person and his motives, but did not address the new information he had managed to get from Anne Freud’s archive in London.
Around this time - the mid to late eighties - many books on abuse were published, Richard Gardner
described the Parent Alienation Syndrome, Ralph Underwager, Hollida Wakefield and the Freyds
formed the False Memory Syndrome Foundation and professionals in the field became divided into
the believers and the sceptics. Many highly regarded professionals supported parents who were
accused of CSA and were very successful in discounting memories which emerged in therapy as
recovered memories and therefore implanted by the therapist.
described the Parent Alienation Syndrome, Ralph Underwager, Hollida Wakefield and the Freyds
formed the False Memory Syndrome Foundation and professionals in the field became divided into
the believers and the sceptics. Many highly regarded professionals supported parents who were
accused of CSA and were very successful in discounting memories which emerged in therapy as
recovered memories and therefore implanted by the therapist.
1 Masson, Jeffrey. Assault on Truth. 1984. Farrar, Strauss and Giroux
Advocates for children who have been sexually abused have been on the ropes under this onslaught, which has not just come from the psychology and psychiatry professions, but also from academics like Elaine Showalter4 and Ian Hacking5, who talk of mass hysteria perpetrated by social workers and women’s advocates and juxtapose this with the studied thoughtfulness of the distinguished grey eminences of the psy-professions. And for a while it looked like we might be heading for a new Dark Ages in trauma studies.
The term alienation derives from the old concept of alienation of affection, which was applied to the entrance of a third party to the marital dyad. It too was resurrected in the mid- eighties in the context of a major change in awareness about sexual abuse in the community.
To any who have doubts about the ascendancy of PAS in the public and academic arenas, I invite you to punch in the term on a google search. Over 7000 citations. On a random search by myself, most of them are highly favourable to the concept and its use in contested custody cases.
After looking at these and other theorists using the terms either PAS or Parent Alienation, Williams J. asks: “Is the methodology behind PAS and PA testable? Subjected to peer review? Is their general acceptance of what PAS and/or PA mean within a profession or professions? Generally? My review of PAS and PA suggests there would be some difficulty answering these questions in the
Furthermore, we have no idea what contact orders - and the Draconian measures recommended by the Family Law Council to enforce them - are accomplishing for or imposing on children, though there is evidence that they are counter productive.38
In a recent publication, Finkelhor observed the decrease in CSA reports in the last ten years and
postulated that some may have been frightened out of reporting because of the unlikelihood of being
believed.3 He also countenanced other possibilities - for example that CSA was less common and
that early intervention had been more successful.
postulated that some may have been frightened out of reporting because of the unlikelihood of being
believed.3 He also countenanced other possibilities - for example that CSA was less common and
that early intervention had been more successful.
Advocates for children who have been sexually abused have been on the ropes under this onslaught, which has not just come from the psychology and psychiatry professions, but also from academics like Elaine Showalter4 and Ian Hacking5, who talk of mass hysteria perpetrated by social workers and women’s advocates and juxtapose this with the studied thoughtfulness of the distinguished grey eminences of the psy-professions. And for a while it looked like we might be heading for a new Dark Ages in trauma studies.
But there were hopeful signs. Freda Briggs’ book From Victim to Offender6, Mezey and King’s
Male Victims of Sexual Assault7, Bea Campbell’s Unofficial Secrets8, the work of Judith Herman9,
van der Kolk and McFarlane,10 Mullen11, Astbury12 and recent papers by John Read13, Andrew
Moskowicz and others are documenting the undeniable long-term effects of CSA to professionals
and to the community, should they wish to be so informed. In family courts, the ramifications of recognising abuse as a reason for supervising or aborting contact have led to laws which are ambiguous, expert opinions which are not based in science and outcries from parents of both sexes about the unfairness of the system. The concept of alienation has gained ascendancy in family courts around the world particularly over the last five years. While most professionals familiar with the courts’ workings recognise that children can and do side with one or other parent, especially in the early stages of separation, little was done to research this. Indeed most of the papers written address Parent Alienation Syndrome, not parent alienation, and distinguished searchers he field have only just turned their attention to the problem.
Male Victims of Sexual Assault7, Bea Campbell’s Unofficial Secrets8, the work of Judith Herman9,
van der Kolk and McFarlane,10 Mullen11, Astbury12 and recent papers by John Read13, Andrew
Moskowicz and others are documenting the undeniable long-term effects of CSA to professionals
and to the community, should they wish to be so informed. In family courts, the ramifications of recognising abuse as a reason for supervising or aborting contact have led to laws which are ambiguous, expert opinions which are not based in science and outcries from parents of both sexes about the unfairness of the system. The concept of alienation has gained ascendancy in family courts around the world particularly over the last five years. While most professionals familiar with the courts’ workings recognise that children can and do side with one or other parent, especially in the early stages of separation, little was done to research this. Indeed most of the papers written address Parent Alienation Syndrome, not parent alienation, and distinguished searchers he field have only just turned their attention to the problem.
In 1975, the incidence of incest was put at 1/1,000,000 in Freedman and Kaplan, the recommended
tome for psychiatric trainees. By 1985, the figures were nearing 1/20 women. The Parent Alienation
Syndrome or PAS14 was proposed by Richard Gardner in 1987 to account for the apparently
burgeoning incidence of sexual abuse allegations in custody disputes in the US family courts.15 ,16
PAS was not developed to explain other kinds of alienation, and it is important to remember that
abuse allegations, particularly serious sexual abuse allegations, were essential to the original
definition of Parent Alienation Syndrome. Without the false allegation, there could be no PAS. PAS
was conceptualised in the context of emerging concerns about false or distorted memories.
tome for psychiatric trainees. By 1985, the figures were nearing 1/20 women. The Parent Alienation
Syndrome or PAS14 was proposed by Richard Gardner in 1987 to account for the apparently
burgeoning incidence of sexual abuse allegations in custody disputes in the US family courts.15 ,16
PAS was not developed to explain other kinds of alienation, and it is important to remember that
abuse allegations, particularly serious sexual abuse allegations, were essential to the original
definition of Parent Alienation Syndrome. Without the false allegation, there could be no PAS. PAS
was conceptualised in the context of emerging concerns about false or distorted memories.
3 Finkelhor, David. Improving Research, Policy and Practice to Understand Child Abuse. JAMA, vol 280, 21, pp 1864-5 1998, Dec 2.
4 Showalter, E. Hystories. Hysterical Epidemics and Modern Culture. Picador. 1997
5 Hacking, I. Rewriting the Soul. Princeton Uni Press. 1995
6 Briggs, Freda, From Victim to Offender: how child sexual abuse victims become offenders Allen & Unwin, Sydney. ISBN 1-86373-759-6
4 Showalter, E. Hystories. Hysterical Epidemics and Modern Culture. Picador. 1997
5 Hacking, I. Rewriting the Soul. Princeton Uni Press. 1995
6 Briggs, Freda, From Victim to Offender: how child sexual abuse victims become offenders Allen & Unwin, Sydney. ISBN 1-86373-759-6
7 Mezey, G. and King, M. Male Victims of Sexual Assault O.U.P. 1992
8 Campbell, Bea. Unofficial Secrets: Child Sexual Abuse. The Cleveland Case. Virago 1988. revised 1997
9 Herman, Judith. Trauma and Recovery. Basic Books 1992
10 van der Kolk, Bessel and McFarlane, A. Traumatic Stress. Guildford Press 1996
8 Campbell, Bea. Unofficial Secrets: Child Sexual Abuse. The Cleveland Case. Virago 1988. revised 1997
9 Herman, Judith. Trauma and Recovery. Basic Books 1992
10 van der Kolk, Bessel and McFarlane, A. Traumatic Stress. Guildford Press 1996
11 Mullen, Paul 1993 BJPsych
12 Astbury, Jill. Crazy for You. OUP - USA 1996
13 Read, J., Perry, B., Moskowicz, A. & Connolly, J. (2001). The contribution of early traumatic events to schizophrenia in some patients: A traumagenic
neurodevelopmental model. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 64, 319-345.
14 Gardner, R.A. (1987). The parental alienation syndrome and the differentiation between fabricated and genuine sexual abuse. Creative Therapeutics,
Cresskill, N.J.
15 Faller, Kathleen Coulborn. Professor, Michigan University School of Social Work. The Parent Alienation Syndrome: What is it and what data support
it? Child Maltreatment, vol 3, no 2 May 1998 100-115
16 Parental Alienation Syndrome According to Gardner (September 1993), “The PAS is a disorder of children, arising almost exclusively in child-custody
disputes, in which one parent (usually the mother) programs the child to hate the other parent (usually the father). The children generally join the
programming parent with their own scenarios of denigration.” Gardner (1987, p. 67) asserts that PAS has become increasingly common and he now sees
manifestations of this syndrome in over 90% of the custody conflicts he evaluates. In 80-90% of these cases, Gardner (1988, p. 61) says that the mother is
the favoured parent and the father is the vilified one. In addition, Gardner (1987, p.274) claims that PAS is responsible for most accusations of child sexual
abuse that are raised during custody disputes, and that “in custody litigation … the vast majority of children who profess sexual abuse are fabricators.”
Gardner (1991, p. 24) claims “irate” mothers have found false sexual abuse allegations to be “powerful weapons” against their “despised” husbands.
Mothers use such allegations to win custody, to cut off the father's visitation, or to wreak vengeance on the father.
2 Letter of Freud to Fliess, September 21,1897.
12 Astbury, Jill. Crazy for You. OUP - USA 1996
13 Read, J., Perry, B., Moskowicz, A. & Connolly, J. (2001). The contribution of early traumatic events to schizophrenia in some patients: A traumagenic
neurodevelopmental model. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 64, 319-345.
14 Gardner, R.A. (1987). The parental alienation syndrome and the differentiation between fabricated and genuine sexual abuse. Creative Therapeutics,
Cresskill, N.J.
15 Faller, Kathleen Coulborn. Professor, Michigan University School of Social Work. The Parent Alienation Syndrome: What is it and what data support
it? Child Maltreatment, vol 3, no 2 May 1998 100-115
16 Parental Alienation Syndrome According to Gardner (September 1993), “The PAS is a disorder of children, arising almost exclusively in child-custody
disputes, in which one parent (usually the mother) programs the child to hate the other parent (usually the father). The children generally join the
programming parent with their own scenarios of denigration.” Gardner (1987, p. 67) asserts that PAS has become increasingly common and he now sees
manifestations of this syndrome in over 90% of the custody conflicts he evaluates. In 80-90% of these cases, Gardner (1988, p. 61) says that the mother is
the favoured parent and the father is the vilified one. In addition, Gardner (1987, p.274) claims that PAS is responsible for most accusations of child sexual
abuse that are raised during custody disputes, and that “in custody litigation … the vast majority of children who profess sexual abuse are fabricators.”
Gardner (1991, p. 24) claims “irate” mothers have found false sexual abuse allegations to be “powerful weapons” against their “despised” husbands.
Mothers use such allegations to win custody, to cut off the father's visitation, or to wreak vengeance on the father.
2 Letter of Freud to Fliess, September 21,1897.
A recent report by the American Judges Foundation states that in approximately 70 percent of
challenged cases, battering parents have been able to convince authorities during custody battles that
their victim is unfit or undeserving of sole custody.1 7 It would be interesting to know what the
figures are here.
challenged cases, battering parents have been able to convince authorities during custody battles that
their victim is unfit or undeserving of sole custody.1 7 It would be interesting to know what the
figures are here.
US child advocate and attorney, Richard Ducote states that there has been virtually no change in the
process during the past two decades. “In fact, a pilot study in the early 1990s by the California
Protective Parent Association and Mothers of Lost Children found that 91 percent of fathers who
were identified by their children as perpetrators of sexual abuse received full or partial unsupervised
custody of the children and that in 54 percent of cases the non-abusing mother was placed on
supervised visitation.”18.......
process during the past two decades. “In fact, a pilot study in the early 1990s by the California
Protective Parent Association and Mothers of Lost Children found that 91 percent of fathers who
were identified by their children as perpetrators of sexual abuse received full or partial unsupervised
custody of the children and that in 54 percent of cases the non-abusing mother was placed on
supervised visitation.”18.......
Furthermore, “In essentially every case in which courts place children with (alleged) abusers, despite
substantial evidence of sexual abuse or domestic violence and no evidence of fabrication on the
protecting parent’s part, it is the parental alienation syndrome that is used by the judge, the evaluator
or the child’s lawyer to ignore and discount the abuse evidence and to wrongfully construe all of the
child’s symptoms as evidence of alienation.”
substantial evidence of sexual abuse or domestic violence and no evidence of fabrication on the
protecting parent’s part, it is the parental alienation syndrome that is used by the judge, the evaluator
or the child’s lawyer to ignore and discount the abuse evidence and to wrongfully construe all of the
child’s symptoms as evidence of alienation.”
Diane Hofheimer, divorce attorney, interviewed Gardner for a documentary on American family
courts and asked him, “What would a good mother do if her child told her of sexual abuse by his or
her father?”
courts and asked him, “What would a good mother do if her child told her of sexual abuse by his or
her father?”
His answer: “What would she say? ‘Don’t you say that about your father. If you do, I’ll beat you’.” That statement, she says, is on tape with a signed release.19 PAS and Alienation
The term alienation derives from the old concept of alienation of affection, which was applied to the entrance of a third party to the marital dyad. It too was resurrected in the mid- eighties in the context of a major change in awareness about sexual abuse in the community.
Gardner’s work has received a considerable hammering through the nineties by academics who have
taken to task his unsubstantiated claims and unvalidated research tools. His definition of PAS in
1999 20 does not mention sexual abuse accusations yet he continues to use the PAS term as if its
criteria are unmodified. He refers to PAS as a psychiatric disorder, though it does not appear in the
diagnostic manuals. Attachment, the possible effects of forced separation from the primary parent,
developmental issues, the high incidence of abuse in the community -on all of which there is a long
and scientifically reliable body of work - are no longer foreground. This, combined with the law
“reforms” that we have seen recently in Australia make family courts places perceived by many as
offering little protection to children.
taken to task his unsubstantiated claims and unvalidated research tools. His definition of PAS in
1999 20 does not mention sexual abuse accusations yet he continues to use the PAS term as if its
criteria are unmodified. He refers to PAS as a psychiatric disorder, though it does not appear in the
diagnostic manuals. Attachment, the possible effects of forced separation from the primary parent,
developmental issues, the high incidence of abuse in the community -on all of which there is a long
and scientifically reliable body of work - are no longer foreground. This, combined with the law
“reforms” that we have seen recently in Australia make family courts places perceived by many as
offering little protection to children.
I will discuss the attempts at reformulation of PAS into the diagnosis of parent alienation,
particularly that of Kelly and Johnston21. I invite you to ponder whether the concept of alienation is
of any assistance in the deliberations of family courts, particularly with regard to assessment of the
likelihood of abuse and in the management of children who refuse to go on visits.
particularly that of Kelly and Johnston21. I invite you to ponder whether the concept of alienation is
of any assistance in the deliberations of family courts, particularly with regard to assessment of the
likelihood of abuse and in the management of children who refuse to go on visits.
eighties in the context of a major change in awareness about sexual abuse in the community.
Gardner’s work has received a considerable hammering through the nineties by academics who have
taken to task his unsubstantiated claims and unvalidated research tools. His definition of PAS in
199920 does not mention sexual abuse accusations yet he continues to use the PAS term as if its
criteria are unmodified. He refers to PAS as a psychiatric disorder, though it does not appear in the
diagnostic manuals. Attachment, the possible effects of forced separation from the primary parent,
developmental issues, the high incidence of abuse in the community -on all of which there is a long
and scientifically reliable body of work - are no longer foreground. This, combined with the law
“reforms” that we have seen recently in Australia make family courts places perceived by many as
offering little protection to children.
taken to task his unsubstantiated claims and unvalidated research tools. His definition of PAS in
199920 does not mention sexual abuse accusations yet he continues to use the PAS term as if its
criteria are unmodified. He refers to PAS as a psychiatric disorder, though it does not appear in the
diagnostic manuals. Attachment, the possible effects of forced separation from the primary parent,
developmental issues, the high incidence of abuse in the community -on all of which there is a long
and scientifically reliable body of work - are no longer foreground. This, combined with the law
“reforms” that we have seen recently in Australia make family courts places perceived by many as
offering little protection to children.
I will discuss the attempts at reformulation of PAS into the diagnosis of parent alienation,
particularly that of Kelly and Johnston21. I invite you to ponder whether the concept of alienation is
of any assistance in the deliberations of family courts, particularly with regard to assessment of the
likelihood of abuse and in the management of children who refuse to go on visits.
particularly that of Kelly and Johnston21. I invite you to ponder whether the concept of alienation is
of any assistance in the deliberations of family courts, particularly with regard to assessment of the
likelihood of abuse and in the management of children who refuse to go on visits.
Reformulation of Parent Alienation
When I presented a similar paper on behalf of the Child Protection Forum of the Family Court of
WA, a group set up because of concerns about the way the abuse allegations were being dealt with
in that court, I was informed publicly and privately that PAS was no longer an issue and it hadn’t
been used in any recent decisions in the FCWA. And this is true - in Perth. What is also true however
is that the rhetoric of PAS is clearly present in evidentiary discourse, as recent cases, as well as
appeals show. Terms like severe alienation, brain-washing, coaching, vilification of the other parent
and enmeshment are common.
WA, a group set up because of concerns about the way the abuse allegations were being dealt with
in that court, I was informed publicly and privately that PAS was no longer an issue and it hadn’t
been used in any recent decisions in the FCWA. And this is true - in Perth. What is also true however
is that the rhetoric of PAS is clearly present in evidentiary discourse, as recent cases, as well as
appeals show. Terms like severe alienation, brain-washing, coaching, vilification of the other parent
and enmeshment are common.
Sandra Berns’ study22 found that all thirty of the family law legal practitioners she interviewed in
Brisbane had used PAS divorce proceedings. In 50% of cases, PAS was used to counter a sexual abuse allegation, in 25 - 50% of cases to counter domestic violence allegations. The father was as likely to be the alienating parent as the mother. There was no evidence that use of the syndrome in contested residence and contact cases was becoming less common.
What is not common, however, is discussion of best practice in assessing child abuse, research of outcomes for children - immediate and long-term - after removal from the primary parent via a change of residence order, attendance to the studies of appropriate assessment of child abuse, especially severe abuse, or to the studies showing the likelihood of other kinds of violence when battering is present.
To any who have doubts about the ascendancy of PAS in the public and academic arenas, I invite you to punch in the term on a google search. Over 7000 citations. On a random search by myself, most of them are highly favourable to the concept and its use in contested custody cases.
In 2000, Joan B. Kelly does not mention either Gardner or PAS in her review paper “Children’s
Adjustment in Conflicted Marriage and Divorce: A Decade Review of Research”,23 in spite of PAS
continuing to be prominent in cases where abuse is alleged and in spite of her methodology being “a
review of key empirical studies from 1990 to 1999 regarding the impact of marital conflict, parental
violence, and divorce on the psychological adjustment of children, adolescents, and young adults.”
Neither is it mentioned in her 5 part article for the USA Law Offices.24 I would postulate that
Gardner’s theories have become so powerful in family courts that he now cannot be ignored.
Adjustment in Conflicted Marriage and Divorce: A Decade Review of Research”,23 in spite of PAS
continuing to be prominent in cases where abuse is alleged and in spite of her methodology being “a
review of key empirical studies from 1990 to 1999 regarding the impact of marital conflict, parental
violence, and divorce on the psychological adjustment of children, adolescents, and young adults.”
Neither is it mentioned in her 5 part article for the USA Law Offices.24 I would postulate that
Gardner’s theories have become so powerful in family courts that he now cannot be ignored.
Joan Kelly collaborated with Janet Johnston in 2001 on a paper on the alienated child.25 Both are
well respected researchers in the field of divorce and its sequelae.
Wallerstein and Kelly described the deliberate influencing of children by one parent against another in
the late 70s. The phenomenon of the “strident rejection” of one parent by an older child or
adolescent was described by Wallerstein and Kelly in 1976. This did not occur in infants and young
children. They saw this as different from the rejection of visitation for a variety of “normal, realistic
and developmental reasons”. These include the resistance of the infant to separation from one or
other parent, the child’s reaction to a high-conflict divorce, the parenting style of the rejected parent
and dislike of a new partner. They saw most alienation as a transient phenomenon and likely to remit
over time.
adolescent was described by Wallerstein and Kelly in 1976. This did not occur in infants and young
children. They saw this as different from the rejection of visitation for a variety of “normal, realistic
and developmental reasons”. These include the resistance of the infant to separation from one or
other parent, the child’s reaction to a high-conflict divorce, the parenting style of the rejected parent
and dislike of a new partner. They saw most alienation as a transient phenomenon and likely to remit
over time.
As described by Kelly and Johnston, the major difference between PAS and PA is the “the pernicious behaviours of a “programming” parent are no longer the starting point. Rather the problem of the
alienated child begins with a primary focus on the child, his or her observable behaviours, and parent-
child relationships. “They contend that this focus enables professionals to consider whether the child
is alienated and to use a “more inclusive framework for assessing why the child is now rejecting a
parent and refusing contact.”. They stress the importance of distinguishing alienated children from
other children who resist visitation and also of recognising a continuum of child-parent relationships
alienated child begins with a primary focus on the child, his or her observable behaviours, and parent-
child relationships. “They contend that this focus enables professionals to consider whether the child
is alienated and to use a “more inclusive framework for assessing why the child is now rejecting a
parent and refusing contact.”. They stress the importance of distinguishing alienated children from
other children who resist visitation and also of recognising a continuum of child-parent relationships
after separation.
The most important distinction they make is between the estranged child and the alienated child. In the former there are demonstrable reasons why the child may refuse access. In the latter, there is no history of parent behaviour which may cause such refusal.
But many forms of child abuse for instance occur in private. Unless the assessment is thorough-
going, rigid refusal of visits can look unreasonable. History is not enough.
Furthermore, Kelly and Johnston state that most children who are subjected to “alienating
behaviour” do not reject the other parent, but may be more or less psychologically disturbed by the conflict and pain of their parents and others in their social system. This takes us outside the realm of alienation and into the realm with which all practitioners in the field are familiar - children suffering because, as Sandra Berns26 puts it - their parents are “behaving badly”. In these cases it would seem more appropriate to drop the term alienation altogether and take each case on its merits.
As Tolstoy said: Unhappy families are unhappy in their own ways.
Kelly and Johnston end with the following: “It should be noted that marital and divorce conflict that
focuses on the child, and high intensity and overtly hostile marital conflict, are well established
predictors of psychological adjustment problems in children.” Well, yes! And there is a wide
focuses on the child, and high intensity and overtly hostile marital conflict, are well established
predictors of psychological adjustment problems in children.” Well, yes! And there is a wide
literature on this that doesn’t seem to be used in recent and current cases.
Their paper makes a start towards a more objective consideration of children who refuse visitation.
However, like Gardner, they describe characteristics of the alienated child, the alienating parent and
the alienated parent, and use his constructs to engage with the problem. Very little space is allowed
for showing how the allegations, particularly with regard to abuse, are found to be false. Often the
expert witness is the person charged with assessing whether abuse has happened. I would contend
that some expert witnesses do not have the hands-on expertise to make this assessment and that by
default, mainly due to the confusion of laws governing such assessments in abuse allegations in
divorce proceedings, they are being asked to do what is usually a state-mandated activity. In this
situation many are resorting to Gardner’s concepts rather than to the body of literature available on
best practice in assessment of CSA allegations27.
However, like Gardner, they describe characteristics of the alienated child, the alienating parent and
the alienated parent, and use his constructs to engage with the problem. Very little space is allowed
for showing how the allegations, particularly with regard to abuse, are found to be false. Often the
expert witness is the person charged with assessing whether abuse has happened. I would contend
that some expert witnesses do not have the hands-on expertise to make this assessment and that by
default, mainly due to the confusion of laws governing such assessments in abuse allegations in
divorce proceedings, they are being asked to do what is usually a state-mandated activity. In this
situation many are resorting to Gardner’s concepts rather than to the body of literature available on
best practice in assessment of CSA allegations27.
Johnston and Kelly give more credence to Gardner’s theoretical constructs than are his due. The
same can be said of the paper by Matthew Sullivan and Joan B Kelly28, with its tenor of conviction
that the exercise of authority and force will solve the impasse. Where is the evidence? The long term
effects of such recommendations, which are taking place in Australia, the US and the UK29, can be grave.
same can be said of the paper by Matthew Sullivan and Joan B Kelly28, with its tenor of conviction
that the exercise of authority and force will solve the impasse. Where is the evidence? The long term
effects of such recommendations, which are taking place in Australia, the US and the UK29, can be grave.
Williams J30 reviews other conceptual frameworks, eg that of Darnell31, who defines parental
alienation as “any constellation of behaviours, that could evoke a disturbance in the relationship
between a child and the targeted parent....” He postulates a continuum of naive, active and obsessed
alienators and does not see the child as taking an active role in the process. Others see parent
alienation as similar to PAS but without the sexual abuse allegations.32 Williams documents other
syndromes which do nothing to improve the situation - SAID Syndrome (Sexual Allegations in
Divorce), Divorce-Related Malicious Mother Syndrome, Delusional Parent Disorder, MSP-
Munchausen’s Syndrome by Proxy - the medical disorder being false sexual allegations.
alienation as “any constellation of behaviours, that could evoke a disturbance in the relationship
between a child and the targeted parent....” He postulates a continuum of naive, active and obsessed
alienators and does not see the child as taking an active role in the process. Others see parent
alienation as similar to PAS but without the sexual abuse allegations.32 Williams documents other
syndromes which do nothing to improve the situation - SAID Syndrome (Sexual Allegations in
Divorce), Divorce-Related Malicious Mother Syndrome, Delusional Parent Disorder, MSP-
Munchausen’s Syndrome by Proxy - the medical disorder being false sexual allegations.
After looking at these and other theorists using the terms either PAS or Parent Alienation, Williams J. asks: “Is the methodology behind PAS and PA testable? Subjected to peer review? Is their general acceptance of what PAS and/or PA mean within a profession or professions? Generally? My review of PAS and PA suggests there would be some difficulty answering these questions in the
affirmative.”
He questions whether either concept - PAS or PA - is of much help in dealing with cases of alleged
alienation as follows:
“There is little or no benefit brought to a dispute resolution and fact finding process whose goal is to focus on the ‘best interests’ test by a diversion into the efficacy of a controversial psychiatric/social science term that has no common meaning in the psychiatric/psychological/social work fields.”
And yet as Berns states: “As a rebuttal to allegations of child sexual abuse, for example, they are
rhetorically elegant, using the allegation that the father sexually abused the child to establish the
mother’s unfitness as a parent. Allegations of PAS are, in this setting, so perfect that if PAS did not exist, it would be necessary to invent it.”3 3(Her italics)
rhetorically elegant, using the allegation that the father sexually abused the child to establish the
mother’s unfitness as a parent. Allegations of PAS are, in this setting, so perfect that if PAS did not exist, it would be necessary to invent it.”3 3(Her italics)
Justice Response
What are the alternatives in the justice system? The Magellan34 and Columbus35 projects are a great
step forward and the Victorian and West Australian courts are to be congratulated on these
initiatives. There is good evidence that, in using the former process of intensive up-front assessment,
legal advice and counselling, court time is shortened, more cases are settled without recourse to
judicial enquiries and children are less traumatised by the process. The Columbus project in WA is
step forward and the Victorian and West Australian courts are to be congratulated on these
initiatives. There is good evidence that, in using the former process of intensive up-front assessment,
legal advice and counselling, court time is shortened, more cases are settled without recourse to
judicial enquiries and children are less traumatised by the process. The Columbus project in WA is
too young to be evaluated, but has been welcomed by child advocates. However I understand that it
is open to parties to refuse to engage in this process36. I would imagine that these situations are
those in which at least one party can afford a long court case or in which the accusations are more
serious. We look forward to results of the research in progress.
is open to parties to refuse to engage in this process36. I would imagine that these situations are
those in which at least one party can afford a long court case or in which the accusations are more
serious. We look forward to results of the research in progress.
What of agreements reached via consent orders? There is strong anecdotal evidence that parents
who allege abuse are being told by their legal representatives and by separate representatives to
agree to these orders - otherwise they will be seen as mischievous and untruthful litigants. As Lisa
Young’s paper37 indicates, we do not know the percentage of parents alleging abuse who are
agreeing to consent orders because they have been informed they have a high chance of losing the
child altogether.
who allege abuse are being told by their legal representatives and by separate representatives to
agree to these orders - otherwise they will be seen as mischievous and untruthful litigants. As Lisa
Young’s paper37 indicates, we do not know the percentage of parents alleging abuse who are
agreeing to consent orders because they have been informed they have a high chance of losing the
child altogether.
Furthermore, we have no idea what contact orders - and the Draconian measures recommended by the Family Law Council to enforce them - are accomplishing for or imposing on children, though there is evidence that they are counter productive.38
My experience with the effects of the imposition of a recovery order in one case was that the trauma
to the child was enormous and caused him to threaten suicide both during and after the event. A
policeman involved called the mother and said it was the worst thing he had had to do in twenty
years of policing. Gardner asserts that such action will lead to the child developing a close
relationship with the new residence parent. As far as I know there is no evidence for this.
to the child was enormous and caused him to threaten suicide both during and after the event. A
policeman involved called the mother and said it was the worst thing he had had to do in twenty
years of policing. Gardner asserts that such action will lead to the child developing a close
relationship with the new residence parent. As far as I know there is no evidence for this.
The Family Law Council’s rhetoric in my view is about enforcement and not about protection. For
example, Recommendation 12 states:
“1.37 Council takes the view that mechanisms must be in place to deal with such matters as
child abuse and domestic violence. Where violence or abuse is alleged, they must be properly
investigated and, if shown to exist, the circumstances relating to child contact need to be
carefully and fully examined. The Family Law Act 1975 provides that in certain circumstances
where there is a family violence order a court may vary, discharge or suspend a contact order if
it is considered to be in the best interests of the child. However, the existence of violence or
abuse in some cases should not be accepted as a reason for not dealing with the problems being
experienced by parents in general.”39
child abuse and domestic violence. Where violence or abuse is alleged, they must be properly
investigated and, if shown to exist, the circumstances relating to child contact need to be
carefully and fully examined. The Family Law Act 1975 provides that in certain circumstances
where there is a family violence order a court may vary, discharge or suspend a contact order if
it is considered to be in the best interests of the child. However, the existence of violence or
abuse in some cases should not be accepted as a reason for not dealing with the problems being
experienced by parents in general.”39
This last sentence seems to imply that violence and/or abuse are not a sufficient reason for a child to be allowed to refuse contact. And this is anecdotally what we hear in practice about both contact and residency.
Patrick Parkinson excellent paper40 about parent-child contact in such circumstances suggest a four-
part plan which differentiates the issue of whether the child has been abused by the alleged
perpetrator in the past from the question of whether there is a serious risk, that the child might be
sexually abused in the future. His description of the gradual violation of the child’s boundaries in the
grooming process, if taken seriously by officers of the court, would be extremely useful when the
abuse seems minimal. This formulation recognises that abuse is not an event but a process.
part plan which differentiates the issue of whether the child has been abused by the alleged
perpetrator in the past from the question of whether there is a serious risk, that the child might be
sexually abused in the future. His description of the gradual violation of the child’s boundaries in the
grooming process, if taken seriously by officers of the court, would be extremely useful when the
abuse seems minimal. This formulation recognises that abuse is not an event but a process.
He suggests that the following questions be asked:
a) What evidence is there before the Court which gives rise to serious concerns about the child’s welfare if contact is allowed with the alleged perpetrator or a residence order is made in his or her favour?
b)What other evidence is there before the Court which might lead the Court to conclude that there
is a heightened risk of abuse if contact is allowed with the alleged perpetrator?
c)Are there any factors in the case, or options available to the Court, which might operate to
reduce the magnitude risk to the child in the future?
d)Are there other factors relevant to the best interests of the child which might affect the ultimate
decision of the Court?
A good basis for an alternative resolution, perhaps. It also depends however on the skills and
knowledge of the expert witness and as recent appeals (eg W and W) show, these can be highly variable.
The changes in the implicit definition of the best interests of the child in the Family Law Act 1995
have cast long shadows over some judgements when abuse is alleged. Custody was renamed
residence and access contact. The emphasis on right of contact as Chief Justice Nicholson has
pointed out, was an attempt to produce an attitudinal change and allow non-resident parents as much
power over major decisions as the residence parent. “Re the first matter, ie the change of
terminology, and the emphasis on a child’s right of contact, was an attempt by legislative means to
produce attitudinal change. The second was a substantive recognition of violence as a factor to be
taken into account in making parenting orders in respect of children.”
have cast long shadows over some judgements when abuse is alleged. Custody was renamed
residence and access contact. The emphasis on right of contact as Chief Justice Nicholson has
pointed out, was an attempt to produce an attitudinal change and allow non-resident parents as much
power over major decisions as the residence parent. “Re the first matter, ie the change of
terminology, and the emphasis on a child’s right of contact, was an attempt by legislative means to
produce attitudinal change. The second was a substantive recognition of violence as a factor to be
taken into account in making parenting orders in respect of children.”
However, and again I quote “there has been an explosion in litigation as a result, with increased
numbers of fathers making contact applications or applications seeking to restrain the mother from
relocating away from them. This seems to be because the Act’s emphasis on the child’s right to
contact has created a transference of this “right” from the child to the parent and is being used and in
some cases misused by parents seeking to retain a measure of control over their former partner. This
in turn has more than counterbalanced the Act’s increased recognition of the effects of violence upon
children.”41
numbers of fathers making contact applications or applications seeking to restrain the mother from
relocating away from them. This seems to be because the Act’s emphasis on the child’s right to
contact has created a transference of this “right” from the child to the parent and is being used and in
some cases misused by parents seeking to retain a measure of control over their former partner. This
in turn has more than counterbalanced the Act’s increased recognition of the effects of violence upon
children.”41
To this we may add Parkinson’s observations that there is a reluctance in the Family Court to make
findings of fact that one of the parties has committed what amounts to a criminal offence, both in M
v M and in Briginshaw v Briginshaw, where, to quote Parkinson, the High Court actively
discouraged the making of findings of abuse in the Family Court.
findings of fact that one of the parties has committed what amounts to a criminal offence, both in M
v M and in Briginshaw v Briginshaw, where, to quote Parkinson, the High Court actively
discouraged the making of findings of abuse in the Family Court.
This presumably would not matter if the best interests of the child was its own safety. But if the best
interests of the child is contact with both parents, then judges would be inclined to order this,
because the accused party has been found guilty of nothing, even if the evidence of abuse is strong.
In WA the Child Protection Forum has been informed regularly of forced contact and change of
residence orders in situations that would be unthinkable in the Childrens Court.
interests of the child is contact with both parents, then judges would be inclined to order this,
because the accused party has been found guilty of nothing, even if the evidence of abuse is strong.
In WA the Child Protection Forum has been informed regularly of forced contact and change of
residence orders in situations that would be unthinkable in the Childrens Court.
On the other hand, if I were a judge in this situation, I might think, “Hey, wait a minute, this must be
happening in lots of families who do not come to court unless the family breaks down. If all these
parents, mainly fathers, are prevented from seeing their kids, we are going to look biased, the fathers
will be reluctant to pay maintenance and the cases will go on, costing the tax payer big bucks, the
family might finish up in poverty.” And then protective parents might look obstructive, bloody-
minded, hysterical and unreasonable, to judges, separate representatives and often, from my reading
of reports, to the expert witnesses. For all these people to carry out the mandate designed for them
by the government, all that is needed, it appears, for the mother to be firm with the child and stop
alienating him! Simple! Just like Gardner suggests.
happening in lots of families who do not come to court unless the family breaks down. If all these
parents, mainly fathers, are prevented from seeing their kids, we are going to look biased, the fathers
will be reluctant to pay maintenance and the cases will go on, costing the tax payer big bucks, the
family might finish up in poverty.” And then protective parents might look obstructive, bloody-
minded, hysterical and unreasonable, to judges, separate representatives and often, from my reading
of reports, to the expert witnesses. For all these people to carry out the mandate designed for them
by the government, all that is needed, it appears, for the mother to be firm with the child and stop
alienating him! Simple! Just like Gardner suggests.
On the other hand, those who work daily with abused children and adults often assumed that other
professionals have the same experience. We know now that the unthinkable can and does happen in
the child’s own home - a reading of Dr Briggs’ book establishes that, as does attendance in any
paediatric casualty department - so maybe those wishing to protect children must research and
publish and persuade their fellow professionals that all is not well in some homes. The question mark
must always be there - is this child telling the truth, no matter how bizarre the allegation?
professionals have the same experience. We know now that the unthinkable can and does happen in
the child’s own home - a reading of Dr Briggs’ book establishes that, as does attendance in any
paediatric casualty department - so maybe those wishing to protect children must research and
publish and persuade their fellow professionals that all is not well in some homes. The question mark
must always be there - is this child telling the truth, no matter how bizarre the allegation?
Alternative Resolution
To attend to the title of the conference, what can we can we offer except the big stick. Well,
Magellan and Columbus for a start, but more studies (I can’t believe I’m hearing myself, a therapist,
asking for more studies!) are necessary, because alternatives are not easy and they are not cheap.
Magellan and Columbus for a start, but more studies (I can’t believe I’m hearing myself, a therapist,
asking for more studies!) are necessary, because alternatives are not easy and they are not cheap.
We need:
a) More information on whether residence parents are threatened with losing their children if they do not consent to contact in situations of alleged abuse and if they have been seen as alienating the child from the contact parent.
b) Protocols for what is basic to an adequate expert opinion, including evidence in the report that the expert has experience with abused children and is familiar with a broad range of literature, including the literature on best practice in assessing child sexual abuse.
c) Longer and broader outcome studies regarding the effects on the child and protective parent of
forced contact and change of residence.
I have seen five cases in the last two years of cases where the court had decided in change of
residence when a father was accused of abuse. Some occurred recently, some many years ago.
In no case did the child stay with the father. In three cases the children, now young adults, have
no contact. In one, the children, now teenagers, have been returned to the residence father after
removal five years ago by DOCS after allegations of child abuse. The circumstances of this
return are unknown. In another case, both children left the father’s home for the mother’s after
he was granted residence, the girl at twelve and the boy at seventeen. They have refused to see
residence when a father was accused of abuse. Some occurred recently, some many years ago.
In no case did the child stay with the father. In three cases the children, now young adults, have
no contact. In one, the children, now teenagers, have been returned to the residence father after
removal five years ago by DOCS after allegations of child abuse. The circumstances of this
return are unknown. In another case, both children left the father’s home for the mother’s after
he was granted residence, the girl at twelve and the boy at seventeen. They have refused to see
him since.
I know of three women who spent large sums to prevent either change of residence or
unsupervised contact. In two, they spent their entire settlements - $35,000 and $45,000 - and
one spent $100,000 before becoming a litigant in person. In two of these cases, the allegations
were eventually seen as sufficiently serious to lead to contact with the father being denied. In the
other, another court put a restraining order on the father when two other siblings disclosed
sexual abuse by the father. In all cases the parents were left exhausted, traumatised and in a
unsupervised contact. In two, they spent their entire settlements - $35,000 and $45,000 - and
one spent $100,000 before becoming a litigant in person. In two of these cases, the allegations
were eventually seen as sufficiently serious to lead to contact with the father being denied. In the
other, another court put a restraining order on the father when two other siblings disclosed
sexual abuse by the father. In all cases the parents were left exhausted, traumatised and in a
financially precarious situation.
I have no doubt that the same also happens to fathers in similar instances - eg when a father suspects or knows that abuse from the mother and or step-father is occurring and must either bankrupt himself or become a litigant in person to protect the child. d)Recognition of the enormous trauma to a child when he is subjected to forced recovery and
when he is told that his mother or father will be gaoled if he/she does not make him comply.
e) Government policy to reflect best practice and not undermine it.
f) To know whether abuse is more common in lower socio-economic groups and is related to social trauma or whether well-off perpetrators are just better at getting avoiding exposure.
f) To know whether abuse is more common in lower socio-economic groups and is related to social trauma or whether well-off perpetrators are just better at getting avoiding exposure.
g) To offer alternatives, such as long-term case management, when contact is ordered by the court,
to try to ascertain in each case where the sticking point may be. I know this kind of
interventionism is anathema to libertarian thinking, but in the case of children at risk, it is
to try to ascertain in each case where the sticking point may be. I know this kind of
interventionism is anathema to libertarian thinking, but in the case of children at risk, it is
warranted.
However, to quote Justice Nicholson again, “We live in a time of great change in relation to family
law, which Government, in the way of Government of whatever political persuasion, likes to
describe as “reform”, however regressive the measure may be.”42
law, which Government, in the way of Government of whatever political persuasion, likes to
describe as “reform”, however regressive the measure may be.”42
PARENT ALIENATION SYNDROME REVISITED
Dr Lois Achimovich
Next Step Youth Drugs and Alcohol Services, WA
Paper presented at the
Child Sexual Abuse: Justice Response or Alternative Resolution Conference
convened by the Australian Institute of Criminology
and held in Adelaide, 1-2 May 2003
Child Sexual Abuse: Justice Response or Alternative Resolution Conference
convened by the Australian Institute of Criminology
and held in Adelaide, 1-2 May 2003
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